Ancient DNA Links Harbin Skull to Denisovans

The Harbin cranium, also called “Dragon Man,” is a very old human fossil from northeastern China. Scientists believe it is more than 146,000 years old. At first, researchers thought it belonged to a new human species called Homo longi. However, in 2025, new studies using ancient proteins and mitochondrial DNA showed that this skull most likely belonged to a Denisovan, an extinct group of ancient humans related to Neanderthals and modern humans.

Denisovans were first discovered through DNA found in a finger bone and teeth from Denisova Cave in Siberia. For many years, scientists knew about their genes but had very few fossils, so they did not know exactly what Denisovans looked like. The Harbin skull is important because it is almost complete, giving scientists a rare chance to connect a face and skull shape with Denisovan DNA.

The first important evidence came from ancient proteins. Proteins are molecules made by genes, and they can survive in fossils for a very long time. Scientists recovered 95 proteins from the Harbin cranium. When they compared the protein sequences with those of modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, they found special amino acid changes that matched Denisovans. These protein differences showed that the Harbin individual was closely related to Denisova 3, a Denisovan individual from Siberia.

The second major evidence came from mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA. Mitochondrial DNA is passed from mothers to their children, so it helps scientists trace maternal family lines. The researchers did not find enough DNA inside the skull bone itself, but they successfully recovered mtDNA from dental calculus, which is hardened plaque on teeth. This mtDNA grouped with the mtDNA of early Denisovans from Siberia, not with later Denisovans or other human groups. This means the Harbin person likely belonged to an early Denisovan maternal lineage.

The most specific molecular evidence is the discovery of 27 gene variants that have been found only in known Denisovans. These variants were not found in modern humans or in other archaic humans. Because these genetic changes are unique to Denisovans, they act like a molecular fingerprint. Their presence in the Harbin individual strongly supports the idea that Dragon Man was a Denisovan.

Together, the protein evidence, mitochondrial DNA evidence, and the 27 Denisovan specific gene variants show that the Harbin cranium represents an early Denisovan. This discovery also suggests that Denisovans lived across a wide area of Asia, from Siberia to northeastern China. Most importantly, it gives scientists their first nearly complete Denisovan skull, helping them finally understand what these ancient human relatives may have looked like.

The main original articles were published in 2025 by teams led by Chinese and international researchers, especially Qiaomei Fu of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP), Chinese Academy of Sciences. The studies appeared in the major scientific journals Cell and Science.